This feature was first published in October 2024 in My Mensa Weekly, our exclusive newsletter for Mensa members. Find out more about becoming a Mensa member here.

Words: Joanna Cummings

Jungian archetypes are universal, primordial patterns that reflect and shape our thoughts, dreams and stories. Here we explore their origins, development and place in our culture.

What do the Virgin Mary, Luke Skywalker and Wuthering Heights’ Heathcliff have in common? They are all examples of archetypes, recognisable and meaningful symbols that represent and make sense of the human experience. The concept of archetypes was suggested by psychiatrist and psychotherapist Carl Jung – also responsible for identifying extraversion and introversion in humans – and is one of the cornerstones of modern psychology.

Jung was a contemporary of psychotherapist Sigmund Freud. However, unlike Freud, who believed the unconscious was solely individual and personal, Jung posited the theory of a ‘collective unconscious’ – a deeper, shared layer of the unconscious mind common to all humans. This collective unconscious, he believed, is populated by archetypes, such as the ‘Hero’ or the ‘Mother’, representative not of personal experiences but of inherited structures of the psyche that govern fundamental human experience and give shape to cultural narratives. To Jung, no brain was a blank slate at birth.

The four major archetypes defined by Jung include the ‘Self’, representing the psyche and the quest to develop our personal identity; the ‘Shadow’, encompassing the repressed, darker aspects of the self; the ‘Anima/Animus’, the feminine and masculine aspects within every individual; and the ‘Persona’, the social mask or role that we present to the outside world. Within these four, Jung identified 12 archetypal figures: Ruler, Creator, Sage, Innocent, Explorer, Rebel, Hero, Wizard, Jester, Everyman, Lover and Caregiver or Great Mother. Each of these can take on forms specific to a particular culture, but their underlying definition remains consistent everywhere and with everyone.

The concept of archetypes becomes much easier to recognise when it comes to our belief systems. The ‘Hero’s Journey’ – where an archetypal figure embarks on a journey of trials, transformation and eventual return – occurs in various religions and mythologies, from Jesus in Christianity to Rama in Hinduism and Odysseus in Greek mythology. The Great Mother can be seen in figures like Isis in Egyptian religion, Gaia in Greek mythology and the Virgin Mary. There are innumerable works of art representing the Mother and Child.

Archetypes also form the basis for characters in literature and film; Shakespeare’s Macbeth, with his unchecked ambition and eventual moral downfall, reflects the Shadow archetype. Iago, in Othello, is the Shadow, manipulating other characters into trusting him despite his deceit. The Shadow can also be represented by a bigger system, such as the one ‘Hero’ Neo fights against in The Matrix. Luke Skywalker, mentioned above, may be on a ‘Hero’s Journey’ to fight Darth Vader (the Shadow), but he is supported by Obi-Wan Kenobi as his mentor (or Sage).

In the realm of psychology, Jung’s archetypes have had a profound influence on how we understand the mind’s deeper layers, particularly through dream analysis. Jungian analysts use archetypal symbols in dreams to help individuals uncover unconscious conflicts and desires. Archetypes also play a role in understanding collective psychological phenomena; the projection of the Shadow could lead to large-scale prejudice and riots, as has been seen in the UK; someone being perceived as the Hero can inspire movements or collective action – witness the widespread response among young women to Taylor Swift’s brand of feminism.

As you may expect, Jung’s theories have encountered criticism over the years. Some argue that archetypes are too abstract or vague to be empirically tested, others have suggested they may be culturally biased or influenced too much by historical context rather than universally shared across humanity. For example, feminist critics have questioned the binary nature of the Anima/Animus archetype, which can reinforce traditional gender roles, and others have argued that the concept of the ‘collective unconscious’ lacks scientific rigour.

In psychoanalysis today, archetypes are often viewed more metaphorically than as literal psychic structures. But while the concept of the collective unconscious has been largely set aside in favour of more evidence-based theories, archetypes remain relevant in psychotherapy, particularly in narrative therapies, and dream analysis – and will no doubt continue to play a big part in literature and film.

As psychology moves more towards neuroscientific and evidence-based approaches, the future relevance of Jungian archetypes may lie less in their traditional framing and more in their symbolic and narrative power. So, if you need to channel your inner Hero by tackling that pile of laundry, we won’t judge you…

Archetypes and psychobiology

Some argue that archetypal patterns in human behaviour and experience may be linked to our biology and that archetypes could be shaped by inherited neural pathways or evolutionary adaptations that influence how we perceive, interpret and respond to the world. Psychobiology – the scientific study of the interaction between biological processes and psychological phenomena – draws on neuroscience, genetics and epigenetics to understand archetypes and their role in shaping cognition and behaviour. Click the link to find out more.