This feature was first published in October 2024 in My Mensa Weekly, our exclusive newsletter for Mensa members. Find out more about becoming a Mensa member here.
Words: Nicola More
Our most gifted speakers have shaped the course of human history. Great orators can capture the mood of the times, bend audiences to their will and deliver generational change. But just what does it take to write an era-defining speech?
Persuasive rhetoric is sophisticated, meticulous and subtle, an art unto itself. Unless you’re Winston Churchill, who favoured a more direct tack: “If you have an important point to make, don’t try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. Then come back and hit it again. Then hit it a third time – a tremendous whack.”
But if you plan on wielding a pile driver, it’s essential you know how to use it. The science of rhetoric has fascinated philosophers, writers and politicians for centuries – and little wonder, given its power.
Aristotle’s seminal Rhetoric, published in 350BC, defined three means of persuasion: êthos (the character of the speaker), pathos (the emotions of the audience) and logos (the argument itself).
Churchill’s indomitable spirit certainly speaks to the power of êthos – his pledge to “never surrender” reverberating through history. Turbulent times often produce powerful leaders, and of course Hitler himself was a master of persuasion, his technique being less eloquence and more stamina and force of delivery.
Then there were leaders like Thatcher, who deftly turned her Iron Lady moniker into a badge of honour, a symbol of strength: “You turn if you want to. The lady’s not for turning.”
261 words that changed the world
These were moments of profound connection between orator and audience. As Aristotle identified, pathos is a rich vein to channel. Tom Clark, editor of Historic 20th Century Speeches, explains that democracy transformed rhetoric from an elite activity to a political one. “Suddenly the elite had to reach out beyond their own in order to try to change people’s minds.”
Clark cites the 1863 Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln as a “turning point” in political communication. He highlights its simplicity – 261 words, of which 205 were just one syllable. “But of course it had that terrific sound bite to die for about government of the people, by the people, for the people, which is technically a work of genius.”
Lincoln’s speech made him appear both everyman and statesman. This vulnerability plays a crucial role in building an emotional connection with the audience. Writing for Literary Hub, historian Simon Sebag Montefiore observes: “In some ways, the speaker is extraordinarily exposed but the payoff is the ability to communicate directly to the audience. The speeches of the French Revolution often ended with the arrest and beheading of the speaker – a spontaneity that Robespierre and Danton both encouraged, both fell victim to.”
Michelle Obama is a modern speaker who employs emotion and vulnerability to great effect, transforming these into statements of power. In her speech at the memorial service for writer and civil rights activist Maya Angelou, Obama talks about being a young black girl struggling to understand her identity. She tells the audience: “I discovered Maya Angelou, and her words lifted me right out of my own little head.” The contrast between Obama as a vulnerable little girl and latterly as an empowered woman certainly lands with a whack.
Repetition, repetition, repetition
While pathos establishes the emotional connection, logos is not to be overlooked. A powerful speech is usually the result of carefully crafted techniques and ruthless editing.
One of the simplest but most effective techniques is the use of repetition to hammer a point home. In a now-famous speech to the UN, Hilary Clinton declared that “Women’s rights are human rights”. She went on to reference global and historic injustices and violence:
“It is a violation of human rights when women and girls are sold into slavery and prostitution. It is a violation of human rights when women are doused with gasoline, set on fire and burned to death because their marriage dowries are deemed too small.”
Clinton employed repetition to emphasise that feminism is not just a female cause, but a human one. This message, coupled with violent imagery, made a powerful impression.
Metaphor is another stylistic device that paints a picture in the mind of the audience. Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream speech” is his most well-known. However, days after the assassination of Malcolm X he delivered a searing indictment of income inequality. “Our brothers and sisters” he said, “find themselves perishing on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity.”
Rhetoric on steroids
Interestingly, while an eloquent turn of phrase still holds muster, modern times have heightened the importance of physical delivery. In an age of 24-hour news, social media and the rise of populism, modern political discourse puts even greater emphasis on delivery, and showmanship. We will be exploring this and the eight elements of highly effective speech in a later issue of My Mensa Weekly.
If we’ve whetted your appetite for more, deep-dive into this translation of Aristotle’s Rhetoric.
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